As practiced by Socrates in the Cratylus, etymology involves a claim about the underlying semantic content of the name, what it really means or indicates. This content is taken to have been put there by the ancient name-givers: giving an etymology is thus a matter of unwrapping or decoding a name to find the message the name-givers have placed inside.
Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human, discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.
Addictio, the abstract noun derived from the verb, was the technical Latin term for the judicial act by which a debtor was made the slave of his creditor.
The sentence was pronounced, or spoken, by the judge, or praetor, according to the ancient law of the Twelve Tables. Where exactly did this leave the addictus, which in the passive form referred to the hapless individual who was physically handed over to his creditor by the praetor’s authority and physically led off in chains, to be held for sixty days or until the debt was paid? Failure to pay the debt after the lapse of the statutory sixty days rendered the debtor his creditor’s permanent property. He could then, at the creditor’s discretion, be kept, killed or sold as a common slave.
For the Romans, enslavement became increasingly associated with the passive forms of addicere, which of necessity would take on a very different connotation from the active form. To understand this, one must appreciate the distinction Romans made between active and passive forms of the verb, and in fact between active and passive in all forms of behavior. To be the recipient, to be acted upon, was to be less than. A passive human subject was a defeated individual, the object of someone else’s power. Being sentenced to be another person’s slave would be particularly humiliating. It would mean not only the loss of one’s citizenship but of one’s personhood.
The theme continued to be developed well into the imperial period. The most striking aspect of the use of addicere in each of these instances is the idea of bondage or enslavement. However, the object of that enslavement had evolved over the course of six centuries. What started as literal, the fate of the debt bondsman (addictus) under the ancient Law of the Twelve Tables, became metaphorical. One could become enslaved by vice (e.g., gambling, drinking, gluttony). A behavior like gambling, which previously might have led to one’s being sentenced into slavery, now was the enslavement.
The English verb ‘addict’ found particular resonance among the early church reformers. It’s earliest known appearance in English was in a tract by the Protestant reformer John Frith. It involves the act of choosing between two or more things. He apparently understood it as ‘preference’ or ‘choice,’ meaning (in a Christian context) the individual’s preference for a particular doctrine or interpretation of the Bible. [The Church] emphasized the dangers associated with a mistaken choice (Catholicism, the Pope, icons and idols). Most prominent was the danger of grievously offending God or of being led down the wrong path away from God. The Reformers extended their concerns to the physical realm, where one could be addicted to physical pleasures like gluttony and drunkenness.
Such ‘choices’ need not be actively chosen, however. The most influential of the Protestant Reformers next to Luther, John Calvin, [believed] man was so corrupted and enslaved by sin that he was incapable of choosing correctly. It was only through God’s grace that one was turned away from depravity and bad choices. An accomplished Latinist and writing in Latin, Calvin drew upon the legal, rather than the augural, usage of the Latin verb addicere to indicate that it is something done to or for one; it is not voluntary or within one’s control. This would be in line with the early legal meaning of addictio in Latin, where one did not act freely but was acted upon by the law [and] made the slave of one’s creditor.
[Writers from the 16th century on] were using medical metaphors to convey the seriousness of the problem, and we can't help noting that the language of disease was used both for the individual and for society. Furthermore, it was not addiction itself that was the disease, it was drunkenness or gambling, and when they referred to addiction, it was to convey ‘attachment’ or ‘preference.’
When the word addiction was deliberately omitted from four consecutive editions of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder, it was because it was considered pejorative, stigmatizing, and too difficult to define. There were simply ‘too many meanings’ the term lacked any ‘universally agreed upon definition’: the result of using it was ‘conceptual chaos’.
Inclusion in DSM-5 represents behavioral addiction’s first official recognition as a diagnostic entity. It is therefore especially notable that, in addition to the lack of a definition, there are neither criteria nor guidelines for the assessment of potential disorders.
Conjugations, derived nouns, example sentences for an actual total of 1580 verbs (to 565 roots).
Lots of example sentences & phrases to 490 verbs.
Walks through the binyanim and their exceptions. Split into the main Textbook and optional Workbook; also available as French, German & Spanish editions.Courses (best with a teacher)
Split into Vol. 1/א & Vol. 2/בּ. Vol. 1 has a religious ed. from 2008 with "newly revised texts & illustrations" but also "Strict compliance with the values of modesty [etc etc]". Each has additional audio versions & teacher's supplements.
Monolingual, probably the most extensive printed dictionary.
Eng→Heb only, but with multiple translations for an English word's distinct meanings & idiomatic uses
Most mature dictionary lookup program (on- & offline ones), works with any windowed program. Alas, as far as offline Hebrew ones are concerned afaik only the Babylon ones are freely available (without nikkud or morphology support). There are also a few non-free Hebrew-only ones you can find, such as Babylon's edition of Even-Shoshan.
By the Academy of the Hebrew Language, good for collocations.
As the title suggests, a monolingual dictionary for Hebrew abbreviations.
Polished online version of Ernest Klein's 1987 Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, offered by Sefaria (see below). Alternatively, PDF here.
Monolingual, good for explanations and inflections. Also with TTS for some words.
More geared towards the Hebrew native looking up English. Has an Android app and a 3rd party tooltip extension for Chrome.
Not a general dictionary, instead features eg. verb conjugation, words grouped by root, and detailed articles on certain topics.
Probably most extensive & feature rich dictionary there is, unfortunately also quite expensive.
Not a general dictionary either, instead based on a big-data approach that draws on various corpora (such as subtitles, program translations, …) to eg. present words in context (and no real guarantee for correctness). Also features eg. a synonym search and verb conjugation.
Similar: Glosbe
Its Heb↔Eng is somewhat hit-and-miss.See also HebrewPod101 below.
Most popular spaced-repetition software. Cards are user-contributed (with all the pros and cons) as decks, eg. freely available on its Hebrew deck site.
Example: Duolingo + Hebrew from Scratch Alef & Beit + Top 2000 deck. Also includes the alphabet.
Free for desktop computers and Android (albeit as independent project), paid on iOS.
Bilingual books, articles etc. in audio & text. Starter ones are free.
Language exchange app (ie. find & IM your penpals).Text processing
Probably most advanced suite for (largely) automatic post-processing (ie. clean-up) of scans.
Allows OCRing a PDF (such as one produced from ScanTailor's output) with a single command. Relies on TesserAct for the actual OCR phase: one should have its current version and the "best" edition (→ slower) of its Hebrew models installed. From my experience (with clean scans of printed material), OCRing non-nikkud Hebrew works rather flawlessly (line breaks and the apparently dreaded ץ aside), whereas text with nikkud is a gamble, as is multi-lingual OCR. Note that some PDF viewers have issue properly copying the resulting text, I found only the one one integrated in Chrome to work reliably.
Considerably better for OCRing nikkud, still bad though. GUI also works only on single images rather than entire PDFs. For a GUI that instead interacts with TesserAct: OCRFeeder
Online tool to semi-automatically add nikkud to unpointed text. Spelling ambiguities mean such text must be manually checked for errors. For a far more sophisticated but paid (₪400) offline solution see this Word extension. Other much simpler and older, free offline tools are listed on Open Siddur's link list (see below).
With free content, such as the dictionary and Core 100 word list, which neatly offers spoken sentences (& sometimes a picture) for each piece of vocab.Free lessons
Rich assortment of free language lessons – audio, text, video – by the DLI (part of the US DoD)
Audio & text of US Foreign Service Institute's 1965 Basic Hebrew course.
The site features many other resources & links (incl. a free vocab trainer), but it's obvious that it hasn't been updated in years.
Basic 101 course, but development ceased years ago.Audio
User requested & contributed pronunciations. Free account lets you request & manually download, paid one gives access to an API to do everything with programs supporting it (like GoldenDict).
Volunteer project producing audiobooks for public domain works.
Podcast with 200+ episodes, each accompanied by a Hebrew transcript.
TLV1's English-Hebrew podcast "showcasing modern Hebrew and its slang", accompanied by eg. video links and lists with words & expressions.Video
Something like a Israeli Netflix, with a 30s countdown its free version.
Crawls Youtube subtitles and will open/circle through these videos at words you search for.See also u/frahs's links to YouTube channels below.
Essentially Project Gutenberg for Hebrew texts.
Contains a number of digitized books, such as Hebrew children's books (→ simple language)
Short texts (eg. news) by the Ministry of Education, with audio.
Large selection of songs, transliterated and translated.
Easy Hebrew monthly (↔English & French), paid subscription. Link is to the demo issue.
Offers eg. annotated texts & guided courses, open for contributions.
As its name suggests.
Wealth of poems, some (not all) with audio and various translations.
Neat library of bilingual Jewish texts from all ages, some eg. with audio, or the Tanakh with built-in lexicon.
Issues of the easy Hebrew newspaper from 2005-12 (publication ceased), most accompanied by audio.
Various graded user-contributed texts, eg. fiction, songs on Youtube (some with timed lyrics), news articles.Other
With tooltip translations of words of compound phrases (limited in free mode) that also works off-site via its web reader Chrome extension.
List of eight Israeli TV shows with English subtitles. To access the article, search for the entire URL on Google, click on the small downward triangle on its result and there on "Cached". Actually finding the series however is a different task.
Fairly unique with its TTS for arbitrary Hebrew input.
Likewise TTS for arbitrary Hebrew input, but limited free usage.Language Q&A (Hebrew only)
Israel's official language regulator, with an informative Q&A section such as for pronunciation issues.
Lots of Q&A, eg. nuances of semantically similar words.Ebook shops
Links sorted to all kinds of topics. Also some original content, such as Hebrew songs with bilingual lyrics.
Eg. with some more dictionaries, such as ones for German & French.
While its main purpose is to share Jewish texts – mostly bilingual liturgy – its Help section also contains all kinds of hints & resources for dealing with the language on the PC, eg:
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gambling definition: 1. the activity of betting money, for example in a game or on a horse race: 2. the activity of…. Learn more. 1.1. with object Bet (a sum of money) ‘they gambled their money on cards’. More example sentences. ‘He usually gambled sums of money between five and one hundred dollars, bottles of champagne, pairs of boots, or new hats.’. noun. the activity or practice of playing at a game of chance for money or other stakes. the act or practice of risking the loss of something important by taking a chance or acting recklessly: If you don't back up your data, that's gambling. Definition of gambling noun in Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Meaning, pronunciation, picture, example sentences, grammar, usage notes, synonyms and more. ˈɡæmblɪŋ. /. /. [uncountable] jump to other results. the activity of playing games of chance for money and of betting on horses, etc. heavy gambling debts. See gambling in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Anyone who gambles on the stock exchange has to be prepared to lose money. C2 [ I or T ] to risk money, for example in a game or on a horse race: I like to gamble when I play cards - it makes it more interesting. He gambles on the horses (= horse races). He gambled away all of our savings. At just under 4,000 pages, the HTOED (Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary) is the largest thesaurus in the world. It covers approximately 800,000-word meanings from Old English ... : Gambling, betting; (now) esp. an illegal form of gambling in which bets are taken on the occurrence of numbers in a lottery. sattu, n.: In South Asian cookery: flour made from a mixture of roasted and ground pulses and cereals such as barley and gram. Get your annual subscription for just £90/$90! December 2020 update. Our latest update: over 500 new words, sub-entries, and revisions have been added to the Oxford English Dictionary in our latest update, including clockwork orange, follically challenged, and adulting. Release notes: learn more about the words added to the OED this quarter in our new word notes by OED Revision Editor ... OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford 0x2 6DP ... The aim of the Oxford Dictionary of Idioms is to provide clear definitions of phrases and sayings for those who do not know what they mean, but also to ... the usual English form of the Latin expression I
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